Loss Of Innocence Essay Research Paper The free essay sample

Loss Of Innocence Essay, Research Paper The Loss of Innocence Certain childhood experiences are missed out by some people because of bad lucks early on in life. Any unfortunate event could do the loss of artlessness and do a child mature before his or her clip. This event or experience would do them to give their artlessness. Many pieces of literature contain the loss of artlessness as a subject. Examples of these would be The Scarlet Letter, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, and The Catcher in the Rye. The Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne, is a novel that shows the subject of the loss of artlessness. Although it is non a major subject, it can be used to depict Pearl, the girl of Hester Prynne. Hester treated Pearl like the wickedness she committed, criminal conversation, so she grew up like it. Hester pleaded to maintain Pearl because? all that she had was the vermilion missive and her child. We will write a custom essay sample on Loss Of Innocence Essay Research Paper The or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page # 8221 ; She is the populating grounds of Hester? s offense and she is a portion of her female parent? s shame. The vermilion missive printed on Hester? s thorax is at that place to remind everyone of Hester? s guilt, which is something Pearl did every bit good. When Hester and Pearl went to see Governor Bellingham, Hester told them how she felt about her girl. Sadly, she felt about the same thing the Puritans did. However she besides declared her love for Pearl. ? She is my felicity # 8211 ; she is my anguish, none the less. Pearl keeps me here in life! Pearl punishes me excessively! ? . The Puritans thought that this small miss was influenced by the Satan. She was a small like the carrier of the truth. None of the other kids were allowed around Pearl so she had no friends. She had a batch to manage as a kid so this compromised her artlessness. Pearl was being punished for her female parent? s wickednesss and she wasn? t accepted as a normal kid her age would be. She had excessively much to bear at a immature age. In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, which was written by Mark Twain, Huck matures rapidly because he has to assist Jim get away the sick luck of bondage. He is torn between the values of society and his immature, guiltless scruples. He is tormented by the idea of turning Jim in and making what everyone else thinks is right or remaining loyal to his new-found comrade. He besides has to utilize his intelligence to acquire down the river and convey Jim to safety. By doing these determinations he is no longer a kid. He loses artlessness and becomes an grownup because he doesn? Ts have to do the determinations a kid his age usually has to. Their were legion occasions in The Catcher in the Rye, written by J.D. Salinger, where loss of artlessness was used as a subject. The first, was when Holden broke the window when Allie died. Losing his brother was a difficult clip for him. For him, Allie was the definition of artlessness. This was because Allie was a kid when he died. He didn? t grow to be an grownup and become corrupted. Another major clip is when he is speaking about the kids in the Rye field. Them falling off of the border is their autumn from artlessness. Holden wanted to salvage them from losing their artlessness, so he wanted to catch them before they fell. He wanted to catch them before they became greedy and careless. In this novel, one is repeatedly reminded of what Holden thinks of everyone but himself. He hated society so much that he would go forth school because of it. When asked why he left his old school he replied, ? One of the biggest grounds I left Elkton Hills was because I was surrounded by hypocrites. They were coming in through the goddam window. ? Holden # 8217 ; s parents can besides be a factor in his compulsion with maintaining artlessness. They tried to restrict him to be like them in their universe. That was something he didn # 8217 ; T want. To him all grownups, including his parents, were corrupted. They were hypocrites. This was the ground he wanted his sister to state the manner she was and the same age she was. Along with his younger brother, Holden? s younger sister was the one individual he cared approximately. Phoebe was still guiltless but Holden was afraid of the twenty-four hours when she would turn up and go one of the people he hated. In decision, many people? s artlessness is lost because of tragic experiences in life. Many novels and pieces of literature contain illustrations on the loss of artlessness. The loss of artlessness is besides the subject for many of these novels. Examples of these would be The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger, and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain.

mr dcp clervil Essay Example

mr dcp clervil Essay Example mr dcp clervil Essay mr dcp clervil Essay How to Evaluate Problem Solving in a Business by Billie Nordmeyer, Demand Media Each business day brings new challenges. A primary difference between a top- performing company and an average-performing company is the manner in which the organization addresses such challenges. In order to ensure a companys problem-solving strategy is a strength rather a weakness, the company must not only determine if it was successful in converting a challenge to an opportunity, but also evaluate the manner in which it solved the problem. Evaluating a business problem solving capability requires consideration of several factors. Ads by Google Simple Project Software Its easy with [emailprotected] Nothing to install. Try it free! www. smartsheet. com Step 1 Determine the degree to which the problem was correctly identified and defined. Consider if the problem was conceptualized in a way that supported the identification of a number of different possible root causes. For example, the problem definition a decrease in sales supports the identification of a number of root causes ncluding an increase in the number of competitors, a need to ramp-up advertising, and a lack of appropriate training for the sales staff. Step 2 Determine if the root problem was correctly identified. Consider if a root problem, rather than a symptom of the root problem, was addressed by the solution. For example, if the root problem is product quality and the symptom is a decrease in sales, a solution of additional sales tools will be ineffective in addressing the root problem. Step 3 Review project data to determine if pertinent facts were considered in the decision rocess. Consider the reliability of the data sources and the completeness of the data gathered. Step 4 Evaluate the resources employed to identify the appropriate solution. Find out if key personnel were selected on the basis of expertise rather than staff position. Determine if an appropriate project sponsor was identified, if appropriate stakeholders participated, and if third-party experts were used if internal personnel lacked the appropriate expertise. Step 5 Review the agreed-to solution to evaluate its feasibility. Determine that the selected olution was best-in-class in light of other possible alternatives. Consider if a sufficient number of solutions were evaluated in order to develop a quality solution. step 6 Consider if the potential solutions were appropriately prioritized. For example, determine if the solution was selected simply on the basis of its implementation time-frame or cost. Step 7 Discover if the set of options was fairly assessed. Determine if experts were consulted in the decision-making process, and if the advantages or disadvantages of the alternative solutions were completely and fairly considered. Step 8 Determine if the decision-making process supported the prompt identification of an operational costs that resulted from delays in process. Step 9 Consider project responsibilities. Find out if appropriate individuals were assigned the responsibility to conduct particular elements of the solution. Step 10 Evaluate the success measures established for the solution. Discover if the solution was implemented successfully within a designated time-frame and according to plan, and if it addressed the issue without unintended side effects.

Have neoliberal policies benefitted people in the developing world Essay

Have neoliberal policies benefitted people in the developing world since 1980 - Essay Example If more foreign products came in, the home producers would be forced to improve their production quality and quantity, to survive in the market. Second, reformers believed that it was the key to higher investment in technology from abroad to boost their production. For a developing country to compete in the same field with the industrialized nations and survive, it had to offer the best products and services in the market. This was a strategy for most marginalized corporations to allow them access to foreign technology in the wake of trade liberalization. However, the outcome had variations between nations. Despite trade liberalization in different parts of the developing world, the trend in the 1990s indicates that â€Å"the results of trade reform have varied and sometimes fallen short of expectations† (Worldbank, n.d., p. 133). Considering the crisis in the Korean economy in 1980, the government had to effectively seek a solution to it, before things got out of hand. There was a lot of pressure for the industries, especially the heavy and chemical industries (HCI), which had no option but rationalize or merge to survive. The Korean government implemented import liberalization in two faces, which were centred on reduction of tariff rates. The mid 1990s had seen imports in Korea rise by approximately 18 per cent, compared to the tariff rates for the manufactures that declined by almost 6 per cent (Yang, 1999). The Korean move to imports liberalization, which was an existing trend among developing nations was the trigger for the pressure in the domestic markets, especially in the manufacturing sector. As the import restrictions reduced, more imports as compared to exports weakened the economy. The domestic prices reduced, which resulted to reduced profit margins not only for the economy as a whole, but includ ing business people. Trade liberalization led to one problem after the other,

Are available Supreme Court Decisions equipped to deal with emerging Essay

Are available Supreme Court Decisions equipped to deal with emerging technological advances - Essay Example The surfacing of new technologies used in fighting crime and the constitutional questions they raise warrants a new approach to these technologies in trying to protect individual rights while at the same time fighting crime. For the last few decades, the Court system has been struggling with the issue of technological advances and their constitutionality. Courts have not only been cautious of the role played by technological devices, but general public interest and maintaining the rule of law in every scenario. Technological advances involving the use of gun detectors, use of less lethal weapons, monitoring of email communication have sparked controversy all over the U.S. In addition, warrant requirements for searches/seizures in cyberspace have been delved into by the Supreme Court. Use of Gun Detectors Emergence of new technologies such as metal and gun detectors and the test of their constitutionality has led to a fresh overview of the functions of the handgun in the Fourth Amendm ent jurisprudence. Courts have always dealt with the issue of weapon searches as they have always been wary of departing from the constitutional requirement that searches can only be conducted in the presence of a warrant occasioned by probable cause. The Supreme Court’s decision in Terry v. Ohio showed a laxity to institute the prerequisite for conducting a search when the aim of the search is recovery of a hidden gun. The Supreme Court unwillingly relaxed this requirement with a view to uphold Terry’s rights according to the Fourth Amendment. The Supreme Court acknowledges that weapons searches and examinations of suspects holding illegal guns are paramount to protecting both the public and the police during street interrogations. In addition, the Court approved the â€Å"pat down’ system in determining whether a suspect is in possession of a handgun as it saw this system as a less intrusive way of conducting searches. We note that there are currently unlimit ed weapon searches places at points of entry such as airports and institutions including courthouses and schools. Gun detection in these places is on different contexts, but aims at achieving a universal goal, however, in the course of gun weapons searches, other contraband are discovered, which are later used as evidence against the defendants, even if a gun was not discovered (Johnson, p. 199). The current use of gun detection measures, which are deemed less invasive, such as pat downs are rather ineffective in detection, this warrants the use of metal and gun detectors based on less than probable cause, which has been approved by the Court. The Supreme Court advocates for the use of gun detectors that serve to distinguish those carrying a gun from those who are not while at the same time not providing any additional information on the person being screened. This will ensure law enforcers are able to detect concealed weapons while protecting civil freedom. In street interrogations , the Supreme Court on Terry v. Ohio exemplifies the Fourth Amendment as meaning that seizure or searches, based on probable cause, conducted without issuance of warrants are a violation of a person’s civil liberty and thus the search results are inadmissible in court. While the Court acknowledges that searches based on probable

Current events Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Current events - Essay Example This can lead to abuse, making the boot camp experience ineffective and potentially deadly for the juveniles involved. Officials in Pasadena are investigating just such an incident. Video taken in 2009 was recently released that showed instructors forcing a juvenile to run with a car tire over his head. Each time he fell, he was ridiculed and abused. The juvenile was crying throughout the video. In another clip, juvenile camp members were forced to drink water until they vomited. These sorts of practices serve no real purpose in developing the character of juvenile offenders. Other directors of boot camps acknowledge that extreme physical training is sometimes a part of their programs, but humiliation, intimidation and abuse serve no purpose. They point out that these activities actually are counterproductive to developing responsibility and focus in the juveniles in their camp. The Pasadena prosecutor’s office is determining which charges to bring against the director of the camp. The article notes that juvenile boot camps in general are under scrutiny because there is, as yet, no good proce ss for checking the qualifications of instructors or for reporting abuses. State legislation is hoping to remedy this lack of oversight. Another article that points to the lack of effectiveness of juvenile boot camps can be found in the Texas Observer. In this article, the entire idea of a military style boot camp being a deterrent to future criminal activity is brought into question. The author Emily Deprang cites recent studies that suggest a high recidivism rate among juvenile offenders that are sent to boot camps. She cites the case of the T.L. Roach boot camp in north Texas. It is the last state run boot camp. The facility has about 400 beds but only 30 of them are occupied. She says that juveniles are sent to this facility for 180 days and then released. Most of them go on to commit future crimes as adults. She

Long Term Global Warming Effects Environmental Sciences Essay

Long Term Global Warming Effects Environmental Sciences Essay Global warming is recognized to be the effect of increasing atmospheric greenhouse gases. In Australia, however, experts discover that land use/land cover change (LUCC) has potential impacts on the exacerbation of climate change consequences. To address this issue, the Australian government calls for the execution of several methods to prevent further deterioration of Australian ecosystem. Such steps are needed to reduce the harmful effects of long-term global warming in the Australian continent as represented by 15% clearing of the continents agriculture, hotter and drier El Nià ±o, more frequent occurrence of drought, large-scale deforestation, and reduction in the gross population of plants and animals, and danger on human health. The consequences of ignoring this effect could have a terrible impact in the nations environment, economic and communities not only in Australia but also around the world. The global climate has elevated the greenhouse gases such as dioxide and ozone, w hich has caused global temperatures to, accelerated over the last 50 years. For example, in some cases there has been a consequential vegetation change to increased woodiness. Because of the fragility of the Australian landscape and their variable climate this effect are important to the future state of Australias vegetation, soil and water resources. They decided to integrated more policies and regional natural resources strategies that will renovate their environmental issues. In addition, this will be beneficial to the vegetation and their regional climate as well as their atmosphere to fight the impact of global warming. However, they do not know to what extent such actions will have an effect. Global climate change agenda needs to admit that climate change is a multidimensional issue that affects every population, and that LUCC must be included in global and regional strategies to inform about climate change .The authors coordinated a research that will including the role of LUCC and its dynamic interaction with increased concentrations of anthropogenic greenhouse gases. This method will require the evaluation of the capacity of reforestation, the impact of climate change at a regional scale and vegetation. Reducing deforestation in the tropics and subtropics will be the first priority. They also argue that this process requires a strong and coordinated global effort through a combination of regulatory frameworks and constructed markets to stop deforestation and facilitate reforestation. This would have extra benefits for ecosystem services. They authors conclude that the positive feedbacks to climate from land clearing appear to emphasize the impacts of global climate cha nge by strengthen climatic extremes, such as recent droughts in eastern Australia. Critical Review This article provided detailed information regarding the long-term effects of global warming in the Australian continent. In particular, the article was able to identify specific causes of global warming aside from escalating atmospheric green houses gases escalation. Such events are discovered to be the result of compounded traditional land use efforts and modern land conversion practices. Furthermore, the enumeration of possible measures to address climate change in Australia marks the importance of this article in the ecological field. This article also recognizes that reducing the deforestation and improving our methods of vegetation requires strong effort to protect the planet in which we live. I agree with the authors because Global warming is happening due to the green house gases and deforestation. For example, they talk about policy implications and how we need to understand what is happening around us. I believe that by understanding and how and why the system is changing w e have better possibilities by reducing the greenhouse gases and restore the vegetation. Global warning is the most urgent environmental problem the world will face in the next decade due to climate changes and other activities caused by humans. I also believe that some natural resources and agricultural sector are vulnerable to climate changes and if we do not take, action this could represents a major risk to the planet. We need to preserve our environment by putting limits to the way in which we waste products and technology that we do not need. If we implement the large-scale restoration of ecosystems, we may have a potential factor in our favor to see regional climate change and provide other ecological services such as clean air and water. However, there is not currently affirmation that such actions will change temperatures and or increase the vegetation, which makes anyone wonder if we can prevent global warning from destroying the planet. Welker, J.M., Fahnestock, J.T., Sullivan, P.F., Chimmer, R.A. (2005). Leaf mineral nutrition of Arctic plants in response to warming and deeper snow in northern Alaska. Oikos, 109(1), 167-177. Summary Two of the most apparent consequences of global warming in northern Alaska are higher summer temperatures and deeper snow levels during the winter season. Alternatively, the quality of leaf mineral nutrition, as represented by Carbon and Nitrogen content, account for efficient photosynthesis, unhampered food chain, carbon budgets, soil organic matter decomposition, leaf litter, and better herbivore forage quality. In connection to this, the purpose of the article was to study and to investigate the effects of prolonged global warming effects on the leaf mineral nutrition content of tundra plants by subjecting several species of tundra plants to a long-term experiment characterized by altering summer and winter conditions. The results showed that extended global warming effects significantly affect the leaf Carbon, leaf Nitrogen and leaf Carbon: Nitrogen content of the plants. The plants were expose three different scenarios to see how each one responded to the climate conditions. The plant call dry tundra survive the clime conditions because of the moisture but the other plan call tussock tundra did not survive when it was expose to the snow. The experiment illustrated that some species of plants leaf mineral nutrition when they are expose to different scenarios. However, the tundra field experiments have focused mostly on measuring the extent to which changes in summer or winter conditions the plants will reproduce, shortening the growing or change the composition of the vegetation. In addition, scientists recognize that caring for the ecosystem is critical to the protection of the planet against global warming. In conclusion, the experiment show that dry and tussock tundra potentially enhance gas and produce carbon when they are exposed to typical weather. This study was designed to address two questions of microbial respiration and different areas without experimental snow and how the changes in vegetation affect us. Although they conducted a small study with limited statistical power, the findings indicate that exposing plants to snow has the potential to allow very old plant to be decomposed, accelerating the rate of CO2 increase in the atmosphere. Their results also complement recently reports by Schuur etal in 2009. In her study of tussock tundra near the Denali National Park, she finds that the plant increase due to increases in soil nutrient pools and the stimulation of plant growth. However, she says that the period in which the plant increases at the same time it losses respiration. Critical Review By analysis, it can be said that this article provided an experimental overview of the long-term effects of global warming on the leaf mineral nutrition content of Arctic plants. Although the settings used were manipulated, one cannot deny the significance of these findings on the future Arctic ecosystem with respect to climate change. Hotter summers and colder winters are already being experienced at present in most parts of the globe and the duration of these events are hard to quantify. Hence, the findings of this study emphasize the need to address the causes of global warming in order to minimize its effects in the future. I agree with the authors because those plants are essential to the global environment since they purify, and carry fresh water. In addition, most of the plants store carbon; absorb pollutants; and support many species of unique animals and other plants too. I think if humans put more effort, will be a decrease on the release of additional greenhouse gases and this will help communities, species and animals to survive or adapt to the global warming conditions. However, I also disagree with the authors, because they are conducting a global experiment by changing the course of Mother Nature. They propose to create a formula that could make the plants grow faster and survive any type of climate condition. I believe that could destroy the ozone layer, which will not allow life to exist on the Earths surface or altered the composition of the biosphere and the Earths heat balance. The studies show that those plants were expose to artificial conditions that were created in order for experiment to take place, but the measurements taken in Alaska that growth in trees has been stunt in recent years which mean that plants could go through the same process and consequence of a rapidly warming climate could appear faster. If the solution to global warming is to experiment more with nature then the solution will be the end. Valsson, T. (2006). How the world will change with global warming. Reykjavjk: University of Iceland Press. Summary This book contained 24 units distributed into three chapters that discuss the nature of global warming, patterns of effects, and the future of the entirety of the biosphere in response to the long-term consequences of global warming. Concerning the future effects of global warming, the author elaborated the outcomes of climate change on the biosphere, world economy, and the possibility of exploiting the Northern part of the globe as replacement of the withering habitats in the future. In particular, land and sea formations are likely to be highly affected by the fluctuating Earth temperature. Therefore, natural resources will be altered; some may be depleted, and majority will be converted. The author argues that global warning could be good for anyone who lives in the northern of the globe, which he claims, will become the new civilization. He also talks about the consequences of global warming and how the geographical locations could play an important role.He draw conclusions of wa rmer global climates in Iceland and the northern of the globe. Furthermore, the author approaches the problem of how global warming is melting the sea ice in the north, which will create routes that will include the passage north of Siberia and later through the Canadian Archipelago. He shows the positive and the negatives aspect of global warming but also how this may benefit someone of the population in areas where the temperature is below normal. For example, he talks about countries bordering being closer to each other and new routes that will allow ships to travel for less time. However, he emphasizes the importance of the agreements across countries in order to reduce greenhouse gas .He also encourage the view that even in negative consequences, we need to preserve a positive attitude towards the changes that are coming. On the other hand, he argues that the warming climate and melting ice will make oil and mineral resources in northern areas easily accessible for exploitation and will make the far north comfortable for human habitation, r eplacing the living spaces around the central areas of the globe that will become too hot for habitation. He talks about conducting an experiment for 3 years in which he will try to expand summer at the expense of winter. In other words, he means that plants usually start to come into flower just as the snow begins to melt and with that bloom sooner then the pollinators of those plants can get to them the faster it will make the plants product their photosynthesis. That would be damaging to both of the species that he will use during the experiment. He also says that the project will confirm that people should not waste any time when it comes to saving the planet from a environmental disaster. Critical Review Through the page of the book, the author was able to synthesize the long-term effects of global warming. In addition, the author was able to provide a concise discussion of the consequences of climate change on the preservation of natural resources. General alteration in the ecological profile and land outline will characterize mankinds future due to global warming. In general, this book is an effective reference on the elucidation of the profound effects of climate change not only in humans but also with respect to biosphere as a whole. I totally disagree with the authors point of view. I believe that his perspective on global warming is more negative than positive. He describes this problem as a normal issue that we as humans have to understand that it can be a positive outcome. I have a different point of view I strongly believe that Global warming is destroying our earth and as humans, we are responsible for what is happening in the world. Global warming is gasses that are trappe d in the atmosphere that are water vapors, carbon dioxide and methane gas which are the reason why many natural disaster are happening around the world lately. The author seems to believe that global warming is good for use because it could make countries closer and unify many continents that are far. He also believes that this could be a good thing for the people who live in the northern of the globe because when the ice melt the new civilization will be created. I find that statement ironic because if the ice melts there is a probability that many of the people who live in those areas will die or be hurt in some way due to the consequences of global warming. I believe that global warning is something negative for anyone, because at some point of another we all going to suffer the consequences of not taking care of the planet in which we live. I take the position that I do believe in global warming and I think it is not just scientists who should notice what is happening around the world.

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas Essay -- Slave Narratives

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas Frederick Douglas, a slave born in Tuckahoe Maryland, was half white and half black. His mother was a black woman and his father a white man. Though he never knew his father, there was word that it was his master. Douglas wrote this narrative and I felt that it was very compelling. It really showed me the trials and tribulations that a black man went through during times of slavery. In his early years, Douglas lived on a farm where he watched many slaves receive harsh beatings and whippings. For example, one of his masters whipped his Aunt Hester because she was not there when he desired her presence. At the time she was in the company of another man, which was something that Colonel Lloyd, her master, told her not to do. As Douglas witnessed the whipping, he saw Lloyd take his aunt into the kitchen of the house and strip her naked. He then told her to cross her hands and as he tied them together and hung her on a hook, leaving her body totally open. Lloyd then began whipping her with a cow skin until she began to bleed. â€Å"I was so terrified and horror-stricken at the sight, that I hid myself in a closet, and dare not venture out till long after the bloody transaction was over† (p. 4). As a result of witnessing many beatings such as this, Douglas was able to put much feeling and heart into his works. Douglas wrote about many whites that he had encountered. Only a handful of which were not cruel to him. The oversee...

A Suitable Base Material for Composite Resin Restorations

Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2007) 1650–1661 www. elsevier. com/locate/foodchemtox A comparison of chemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial studies of cinnamon leaf and bark volatile oils, oleoresins and their constituents q Gurdip Singh b a,* , Sumitra Maurya a,1 , M. P. deLampasona b, Cesar A. N. Catalan b a Chemistry Department, DDU Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur 273 009, India Instituto de Quimica Organica, Universidad Nacional de Tucuman, Ayacucho 471, S. M. de Tucuman 4000, Argentina Received 31 August 2005; accepted 22 February 2007Abstract The antioxidant, antifungal and antibacterial potentials of volatile oils and oleoresin of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (leaf and bark) were investigated in the present study. The oleoresins have shown excellent activity for the inhibition of primary and secondary oxidation products in mustard oil added at the concentration of 0. 02% which were evaluated using peroxide, thiobarbituric acid, p-anisidine and carbonyl values. Moreove r, it was further supported by other complementary antioxidant assays such as ferric thiocyanate method in linoleic acid system, reducing power, chelating and scavenging e? cts on 1,1 0 -diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and hydroxyl radicals. In antimicrobial investigations, using inverted petriplate and food poison techniques, the leaf and bark volatile oils has been found to be highly e? ective against all the tested fungi except Aspergillus ochraceus. However, leaf oleoresin has shown inhibition only for Penicillium citrinum whereas bark oleoresin has caused complete mycelial zone inhibition for Aspergillus ? avus and A. ochraceus along with Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, P. citrinum and Penicillium viridicatum at 6 lL. Using agar well di? sion method, leaf volatile oil and oleoresin have shown better results in comparison with bark volatile oil, oleoresin and commercial bactericide, i. e. , ampicillin. Gas chromatographic–mass spectroscopy studies on leaf volatil e oil and oleoresin resulted in the identi? cation of 19 and 25 components, which accounts for the 99. 4% and 97. 1%, respectively of the total amount and the major component was eugenol with 87. 3% and 87. 2%, respectively. The analysis of cinnamon bark volatile oil showed the presence of 13 components accounting for 100% of the total amount. E)-cinnamaldehyde was found as the major component along with d-cadinene (0. 9%), whereas its bark oleoresin showed the presence of 17 components accounting for 92. 3% of the total amount. The major components were (E)-cinnamaldehyde (49. 9%), along with several other components. O 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume; Eugenol; Cinnamaldehyde; Antioxidant assay 1. Introduction Free radical reactions occur in human body and food systems. Free radicals, in the form of reactive oxygen and Part 57.Corresponding author. Tel. : +91 551 2200745 (R)/2202856 (O); fax: +91 551 2340459. E-mail address: [email  p rotected] com (G. Singh). 1 Present address: Agarkar Research Institute, Pune 411 004, India. * q nitrogen species, are an integral part of normal physiology. An over production of these reactive species can occur, due to oxidative stress brought about by the imbalance of bodily antioxidant defence system and free radical formation. These reactive species can react with biomolecules, causing cellular injury and death.This may lead to the development of chronic diseases such as cancers and those that involve the cardio- and cerebrovascular systems. The consumption of fruits and vegetables (Peschel et al. , 2006) containing antioxidants has been found to o? er protection 0278-6915/$ – see front matter O 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. fct. 2007. 02. 031 G. Singh et al. / Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2007) 1650–1661 1651 against these diseases. Dietary antioxidants can augment cellular defences and help to prevent oxidative damage to cellular c omponents (Halliwell, 1989).Besides playing an important role in physiological systems, antioxidants have been used in food industry to prolong the shelf life of foods, especially those rich in polyunsaturated fats. These components in food are readily oxidized by molecular oxygen and are major cause of oxidative deterioration, nutritional losses, o? ?avour development and discoloration. The addition of synthetic antioxidants, such as propyl gallate, butylated hydroxylanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxyltoluene (BHT) and tertiary butylhydroquinone has been widely used industrially to control lipid oxidation in foods.However, the use of these synthetic antioxidants has been questioned due to their potential health risks and toxicity (Kahl and Kappus, 1993). The search for antioxidants from natural sources has received much attention and e? orts have been put in to identify compounds that can act as suitable antioxidants to replace synthetic ones. In addition, these naturally occurring a ntioxidants can be formulated as functional foods and nutraceuticals that can help to prevent oxidative damage from occurring in the body.Plants contain a variety of substances called ‘‘Phytochemicals’’ (Pratt, 1992), that owe to naturally occurring components present in plants (Caragay, 1992). The phytochemical preparations with dual functionalities in preventing lipid oxidation and antimicrobial properties have tremendous potential for extending shelf life of food products. Several research groups around the world have succeeded in ? nding and identifying natural antioxidants from herbs and spices using di? erent model systems.The antioxidant activity of Labiatae herbs such as rosemary, sage, summer savory and borage are also well documented (Bandoniene et al. , 2002; Djarmati et al. , 1991; Ho et al. , 2000; Aruoma et al. , 1996; Cuvelier et al. , 1994; Wong et al. , 1995; Chang et al. , 1997; Madsen et al. , 1996; Gordon and Weng, 1992; Takacsova et al. , 1995). However, the aromatic spicy and medicinal plants from Laureceae family are less extensively studied. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume, syn C. verum, family Laureceae) is a widely used spice and have many applications in perfumery, ? voring and pharmaceutical industries. Although, the chemical constituents of leaf and bark essential oils of cinnamon have been studied (Raina et al. , 2001; ? Simic et al. , 2004; Jayaprakash et al. , 1997), the potential antioxidant properties have yet not been studied and it seems that investigation on oleoresins are scarce. Hence, in the present work, attempt has been made to explore the possible antioxidant and antimicrobial properties by di? erent methods which can give more comprehensive information especially when the e? ectiveness of multi component natural oleoresins is investigated.The objective of present investigation is to compare the chemical composition of leaf and bark essential oils and oleoresins as well as demonstrate t he possibility of protecting the stored food materials against micro-organism and antioxidative behaviour on mustard oil using as additive by various methods. 2. Materials and methods 2. 1. Chemicals Thiobarbituric acid, pure components eugenol and cinnamaldehyde were received form Merck, Germany. Diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH), carbendazim were procured from Sigma (Sigma–Aldrich GmbH, Sternheim, Germany) and linoleic acid from Across (New Jersey, USA).BHT, BHA, and 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine were purchased from s. d ? ne-chem Ltd, Mumbai, India. Ampicillin was purchased from Ranbaxy Fine chemicals Ltd. , New Delhi, India. Crude mustard oil was purchased from local oil mill, Gorakhpur, India. All solvents used were of analytical grade. 2. 2. Sample extraction Cinnamon leaves and barks were purchased from local market of Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, during January 2004 and voucher specimens were kept at the Herbarium of the Science faculty, DDU Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur.Cinn amon leaves (250 g) and barks (50 mesh particle size) were hydrodistilled using Clevenger’s apparatus to yield essential oils (3. 1% and 2. 5%, respectively). Oleoresins were obtained by extracting 25 g of powdered spice with 250 mL of acetone for 2 h in a Soxhlet extractor. The solvent was evaporated by placing the sample in a vacuum drier under reduced pressure. The viscous oleoresins for leaves and barks, with yield 6. 9% and 9. 7%, respectively, were obtained. Both essential oils and oleoresins were stored in cold condition and until further use. 2. 3. Chemical characterization 2. . 1. Gas chromatography (GC) A Hewlett Packard 6890 (Analytical Technologies SA, Buenos Aires, Argentina) gas chromatograph equipped with column HP-5 (5% phenyl methylsiloxane, length 30 m  · inner diameter 0. 25 mm  · ? lm thickness 0. 25 lm) was used for the analysis whose injector and detector temperatures were maintained at 240 and 250  °C, respectively. The amount of the samples injec ted was 0. 1 lL in split mode (80:1). Carrier gas used was helium with a ? ow rate of 1. 0 mL minA1. The oven temperature for essential oils were programmed linearly as follows: 60  °C (1 min), 60– 185  °C (1.  °C minA1), 185  °C (1 min), 185–275  °C (9  °C minA1 ), 275  °C (5 min) whereas for oleoresins it was as follows: 70  °C (1 min), 70–170  °C (1. 5  °C minA1), 170  °C (1 min), 170–180  °C (9  °C minA1), 280  °C (5 min). 2. 3. 2. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) Analysis of volatile oils and oleoresins were run on a Hewlett Packard (6890) GC–MS system (Analytical Technologies SA, Buenos Aires, Argentina) coupled to a quadrupole mass spectrometer (model HP 5973) with a capillary column of HP-5MS (5% phenyl methylsiloxane, length = 30 m, inner diameter = 0. 25 mm and ? lm thickness = 0. 5 lm). The injector, GC–MS interface, ion source and selective mass detector temperatures were main tained at 280, 280, 230 and 150  °C respectively. The oven temperature programmed for the volatile oils were same as provided for GC whereas for oleoresins, it was programmed linearly as follows: 60– 185  °C (1. 5  °C minA1), 185  °C (1 min), 185–275  °C (9  °C minA1), 275  °C (2 min). The extract was held at 70  °C (5 min), 70–220  °C (3  °C minA1), 220–280  °C (5  °C minA1) and held at 280  °C for 5 min. 2. 3. 3. Components identi? cation The components of essential oil and oleoresins were identi? d on the basis of comparison of their retention indices and mass spectra with published data (Adams, 2001; Massda, 1976) and computer matching with WILEY 275 and National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST 3. 0) libraries provided with computer controlling the GC–MS system. The results were also con? rmed by the comparison of the compounds elution order with their relative retention indices on non-polar phase 1652 G. S ingh et al. / Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2007) 1650–1661 2. 4. 2. DPPH and hydroxyl radical scavenging e? ects The DPPH assay was carried out as described by Brand-Williams and his co-workers (1995). , 10, 15, 20, 25 lL of the sample were added to 5 mL of 0. 004% methanol solution of DPPH. After a 30 min incubation period at room temperature, the absorbance was read against a blank at 515 nm. The assay was carried out in triplicate and analyses of all samples were run in duplicate and results are averaged. This test was adopted from a method described by Halliwell et al. (1987). Solutions of the reagents were always prepared freshly. The reaction mixture contained in a ? nal volume of 1. 0 mL, 100 lL of 2-deoxy-2ribose (28 mM in KH2PO4–K2HPO4 bu? er, pH 7. ), 500 lL of various concentrations of the tested oils or the pure compounds in bu? er, 200 lL of 1. 04 mM EDTA and 200 lM FeCl3 (1:1 v/v), 100 lL of 1. 0 mM H2O2 and 100 lL of 1. 0 mM ascorbic acid. Test sampl es were kept at 37  °C for 1 h. The free radical damage imposed on the substrate, deoxyribose, was measured using the thiobarbituric acid test (Ohkawa et al. , 1979; Shimada et al. , 1992). 1. 0 mL of TBA (1%), and 1. 0 mL tricholoroacetic acid (2. 8%) were added to the test tubes and were incubated at 100  °C for 20 min. After cooling, absorbance was measured at 532 nm against a blank containing deoxyribose and bu? r. Reactions were carried out in triplicate. Inhibition (I) of deoxyribose degradation in percent was calculated in the following way: I? %? ? 100X ? A0 A A1 =A0 ? where A0 is the absorbance of the control reaction, and A1 is the absorbance of the test compound. 2. 4. 3. Chelating e? ect and reducing power Chelating e? ect was determined according to the method of Shimada et al. (1992). To 2 mL of the mixture, consisting of 30 mM hexamine, 30 mM potassium chloride and 9 mM ferrous sulphate were added to 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 lL of essential oil or oleoresin in methanol ( 5 mL) and 200 lL of 1 mM tetramethyl murexide.After 3 min at room temperature, the absorbance of the mixture was determined at 485 nm. A lower absorbance indicates a higher chelating power. EDTA was used as a positive control. The reducing power was carried out as described before (Oyaizu, 1986). Various amount (5, 10,15, 20 lL) of essential oil or oleoresin (dissolved in 2. 5 mL of methanol) mixed with 2. 5 mL of 200 mM phosphate bu? er (pH = 6. 6) and 2. 5 mL of 1% potassium ferricyanide, and the mixture was incubated at 50  °C for 20 min. After adding 2. 5 mL of 10% trichloroacetic acid, the mixture was centrifuged at 200 g for 10 min in Sigma 3K30 model centrifuger.The organic layer (5 mL) was mixed with 5 mL of deionised water and 1 mL of 0. 1% ferric chloride and the absorbance read at 700 nm in a UV–visible spectrophotometer. reported in the literature (Adams, 2001). The retention indices were calculated for all volatile constituents using a homologous series of n-al kanes C8–C16. 2. 3. 4. Antioxidative assays in mustard oil Oxidative deterioration was monitored under modi? ed Shaal Oven test (Economou et al. , 1991). Leaf and bark essential oils and oleoresins along with synthetic antioxidants and major components were added individually to unre? ned mustard oil at levels of 0. 2% (v/v). The initial PV value of oil is 1. 7 meq of O2/kg. Oxidative deterioration was periodically assessed by measuring the antioxidant parameters such as peroxide (PV), thiobarbituric acid (TBA), p-anisidine (p-An) and total carbonyl (TC) values. 2. 3. 5. PV and TBA values The rate of oil oxidation was monitored by the increase of peroxide values. About 3 g of each oil sample was weighed and subjected to iodimetric determination (AOCS, 1990). TBA values were evaluated according to the methods previously stated by some authors (Sidwell et al. , 1954) with small changes. To 10 g of oil sample, 0. 7% aq. thiobarbituric acid (20 mL) and benzene (25 mL) solution we re added. This mixture was shaken continuously for 2 h using mechanical shaker. After 2 h, supernatant was taken and placed in boiling water-bath for 1 h. After cooling, absorbance of supernatant was measured at 540 nm with Hitachi-U-2000 spectrophotometer. 2. 3. 6. p-Anisidine value The test was performed according to the methods (AOCS, 1998,) previously stated by earlier workers (Ottolenghi, 1959; Kikuzaki and Nakatani, 1993). In a 50 mL volumetric ? ask, 0. 6 g of oil sample was taken and volume was made using isoctane solution.From this solution, 5 mL was treated with 1 mL of 0. 25% of p-anisidine reagent and kept in dark for 10 min and absorbance was measured at 350 nm using a UV–VIS spectrophotometer. 2. 3. 7. Total carbonyl value Carbonyl value was evaluated according to the methods as reported earlier (Frankel, 1998). About 4 g of sample was taken in a 50 mL volumetric ? ask and the volume was made up using carbonyl free benzene. Out of this, 5 mL was pippeted out and mixed with 3 mL of 4. 3% trichloroacetic acid and 5 mL of 2,4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine (0. 05% in benzene) in 50 mL volumetric ? asks.The mixture was incubated at 60  °C for half an hour to convert free carbonyls into hydrazones. After cooling, 10 mL of KOH solution (4% in ethanol) was added and the volume was made with ethanol. After 10 min, absorbance was measured at 480 nm using UV–VIS spectrophotometer. Blank was prepared in the same manner substituting 5 mL of benzene instead of sample. A standard curve was drawn using valeraldehyde (50–250 lg) in 5 mL of benzene instead of sample. The total carbonyl was calculated with the help of the standard curve and expressed as mg of valeraldehyde per 100 g of sample. 2. 5. Antimicrobial activity 2. 5. . Antifungal investigations In order to determine the antifungal e? cacy of the volatile oil and its oleoresin, the pathogenic fungus Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus ? avus, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus terreus, Fusariu m moniliforme, Fusarium graminearum, Penicillium citrinum and Penicillium viridicatum were undertaken. These fungi were isolated from food materials such as onion, vegetable waste, wheat straw, fruits of Musa species, sweet potato, decaying vegetation and vegetable, respectively and were procured from Microbial Type Culture Collection (MTCC), Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh, India.The MTCC code No. of these strains are 2479, 1884, 1810, 3374, 1893, 2088, 2553 and 2007, respectively. Cultures of each of the fungi were maintained on Czapek (DOX) agar media with adjusting pH 6. 0–6. 5 and slants were stored at 4  °C. The antifungal activity of the volatile oil and oleoresin against fungi were undertaken using inverted petriplate (Ramdas et al. , 1998) and poison food techniques (Amvam Zolla et al. , 1998). In inverted petriplate method, the required dose (2, 4 and 6 lL) of undiluted sample were soaked on a small piece (diameter 12 mm) of Whatmann No. 1 ? ter pape r and it was kept on the lid of petriplate which is in inverted position whereas in poison food 2. 4. Complementary antioxidant assays 2. 4. 1. Antioxidant activity in linoleic acid system Antioxidant activity was carried out using the method proposed by Osawa and Namaki (1983) with small changes. Samples (1 mL) in ethanol were mixed with 2. 5% linoleic acid in ethanol (4. 1 mL), 0. 05 M phosphate bu? er (pH = 7, 8 mL) and distilled water (3. 9 mL) and kept in screw cap containers under dark condition at 40  °C. This solution (0. 1 mL) was added to the solution of 9. 7 mL of 75% ethanol and 0. mL of 30% ammonium thiocyanate. After 3 min, 0. 1 mL of 0. 02 M ferrous chloride in 3. 5% hydrochloric acid was added to the reaction mixture, the absorbance of red color was measured at 500 nm in the spectrophotometer, for every two days. The control and standards were subjected to the same procedure except for the control, where there was no addition of sample and for the standard 1 mL of sample was replaced with 1 mg of BHA and BHT. G. Singh et al. / Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2007) 1650–1661 technique, the required dose (2, 4 and 6 lL) of the undiluted sample were mixed with the 20 mL of culture medium.Each test was replicated for three times and fungi toxicity was measured after 6 days in terms of percent mycelial zone inhibition. 2. 5. 2. Antibacterial investigations Six pathogenic bacteria Bacillus cereus (430), Bacillus subtilis (1790), Staphylococcus aureus (3103) (gram-positive), Escherichia coli (1672), Salmonella typhi (733), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (1942) (gram-negative) were selected for present study. All the bacterial strains were procured from Microbial Type Culture Collection (MTCC), Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh, India. They were sub cultured on nutrient agar broth (Hi-media) and stored at 4  °C.Active cultures for experiments were prepared by transferring one loopful of cells from stock cultures to ? ask of nutrient aga r broth, which were incubated without agitation for 24 h at 37  °C. In order to determine the antibacterial activity of the essential oils and oleoresins, agar well di? usion method was followed. 0. 1 mL of 101 time diluted bacterial strain in ringers solution were ? ood inoculated on to the surface of well settled sterilized culture medium. The wells (10 mm diameter) were cut from agar, and 0. 2 mL of sample (2, 4 and 6 lL of essential oil or oleoresin diluted in 1 mL of DMSO) was delivered into them.For standard, 0. 2 mL of aqueous solution of ampicillin (1 mg mLA1) was used. After incubation for 24 h at 37  °C, all plates were examined for any zones of growth inhibition according to method developed by Davidson and Parish (1989). All the plates were replicated twice and the results were averaged. 2. 5. 3. Statistical analysis For the oil or oleoresin, three samples were prepared for each experiment. The data were presented as mean  ± standard deviation of three determinatio ns (data were not shown). The quantitative data of major components of oil and oleoresin were statistically examined by analysis of variance (Sokal, 1973) and signi? ant di? erences among several groups of data were examined by Ducan’s multiple range test. A probability value of p < 0. 05 was considered signi? cant. Table 1 Chemical composition of cinnamon leaf volatile oil and oleoresin Compound Volatile oil MS % a-Thujene a -Pinene b-Pinene Myrcene a-Phellandrene p-Mentha-1(7),8-diene p-Cymene 1,8-Cineole Terpinolene a-Terpineol a-Cubebene Eugenol b-Caryophyllene Aromadendrene a-Amorphene Germacrene-D Bicyclogermacrene d-Cadinene Spathulenol Sabinene c-Terpinene Terpinen-4-ol d-Elemene Viridi? orol Methoxy-eugenol Isospathulenol Neophytadiene Docosane Nonacosane Vitamin-E Total 0. 1 0. tr tr 1. 9 tr 0. 7 0. 7 tr tr tr 87. 3 1. 9 1. 1 tr 0. 6 3. 6 0. 4 0. 5 – – – – – – – – – – – 99. 4% a 1653 Oleore sin KI 931 941 980 993 1007 1011 1026 1033 1088 1191 1350 1358 1420 1441 1490 1490 1496 1527 1576 – – – – – – – – – – – MSa % – – – – 0. 3 – tr – – tr – 87. 2 1. 4 0. 8 0. 4 0. 2 1. 7 0. 6 1. 7 tr tr tr 1. 0 0. 3 0. 1 0. 3 0. 3 0. 1 0. 1 0. 2 97. 1% KI – – – – 1007 – 1026 – – 1191 – 1358 1420 1441 1490 1490 1496 1527 1576 975 1064 1177 1340 1594 – – – – – – 3. Results and discussion 3. 1. Chemical analysis GC and GC–MS analysis of cinnamon leaf volatile oil showed the presence of 19 components accounting for 99. % of the total amount (Table 1). The major component was eugenol (87. 3%) followed by bicyclogermacrene (3. 6%), a-phellanderene (1. 9%), b-carryophyllene (1. 9%), aromadendrene (1. 1%), p-cymene (0. 7%) and 1,8-cineole (0. 7%). Moreover, it s oleoresin showed the presence of 25 components accounting for 97. 1% of the total amount (Table 1). The major components accounting were eugenol (87. 2%), spathulenol (1. 7%), bicyclogermacrene (1. 7%), b-caryophyllene (1. 4%) and d-elemene (1. 0%). The analysis of cinnamon bark volatile oil showed the presence of 13 components accounting for 100% of the total amount (Table 2). E)-cinnamaldehyde was found as the major component along with d-cadinene (0. 9%), a-copaene (0. 8%) and a-amorphene (0. 5%), whereas its bark oleoresin showed the presence of 17 components accounting for 92. 3% of the total amount (Table 2). The major components were (E)-cinnamaldehyde (49. 9%), coumarin (16. 6%), d-cadinene (7. 8%), a-copaene (4. 6%), (Z)-cinnamaldehyde (1. 5%), ortho-methoxy cinnamaldehyde (1. 5%) and b-bisabolene (1. 4%) along with several other compo- Percentages are the mean of three runs and were obtained from electronic integration measurements using selective mass detector tr < 0. 1 . a nents. Recently, Raina et al. (2001) reported eugenol (76. 6%), linalool (8. 5%) and pipertone (3. 31%) as major components from its leaf oil grown in little Andman whereas the steam distilled volatile oil of cinnamon fruit ? grown at Karnataka and Kerala consists (Simic et al. , 2004; Jayaprakash et al. , 1997) of hydrocarbons (32. 8% and 20. 8%) and oxygenated compounds (63. 7% and 73. 4%) and trans-cinnamyl acetate and b-caryophyllene were found to be major component. 3. 2. Antioxidative assays in mustard oil The changes of PV in mustard oil of all investigated samples are presented in Fig. 1.The rate of oxidative reactions in mustard oil with additives was almost similar to that of the blank sample. The stability of the mustard oil samples to the formation of peroxides can be ranked in the following descending order: Leaf oleoresin > BHT > PG % eugenol > Bark oleoresin % BHA > Leafoil > cinnamaldehyde > bark oil 1654 G. Singh et al. / Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2007) 1 650–1661 Table 2 Chemical composition of cinnamon bark volatile oil and extract Compound Volatile oil MS % a-Pinene Camphene Sabinene b-Pinene Limonene 1,8-Cineole Camphor Z-cinnamaldhyde E-cinnamaldhyde a-Copaene a-Amorphene -Cadinene Terpinen-4-ol b-Caryophyllene Coumarin a-Muurolene b-Bisabolene Cadina-1(2), 4-diene Ortho-methoxy cinnamadehyde Cubenol 1-Heptadecene 1-Nonadecene Tetracosane Octacosane Nonacosane Total a a Oleoresin KI 941 953 975 980 1031 1035 1144 1225 1279 1379 1490 1527 – – – – – – – – – – – – – MSa % – – – – – – – 1. 5 50. 0 4. 6 – 7. 8 0. 1 1. 0 16. 6 4. 4 1. 4 1. 8 1. 5 0. 5 0. 2 0. 4 0. 1 0. 1 0. 2 92. 3% KI – – – – – – – 1225 1279 1379 – 1527 1177 1420 1436 1500 1506 1530 1532 – – – – – – tr tr tr tr tr tr tr tr 97. 7 0. 8 0. 5 0. 9 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 100% ays. The e? ects of volatile oils and oleoresins on malonaldehyde formation for mustard oil in terms of incubation time versus TBA value at 60  °C are shown in Fig. 2. The malondehyde formation of all the additives increases with storage time. The oil showed a moderate inhibition at 0. 02% concentration, and was comparable to BHA and PG but much lower than BHT. These results were well correlated with p-anisidine and total carbonyl values (Fig. 4). However, the sequence is slightly di? erent as compared with the one obtained during measurements of peroxide values.For instance, bark oleoresin had a little greater activity for preventing the formation of secondary oxidation products than primary ones. On contrary, volatile oils were slightly less e? ective in preventing the formation of secondary oxidation products than primary ones. From the above results, it should be said that the formation of the primary oxidation species, peroxides, were also quite similar with the secondary oxidation products, and the changes of both oxidation characteristics are in a good correlation. Hence, the inhibition activity of leaf and bark oleoresins were excellent among all the additives and there was a signi? ant di? erence between the blank and antioxidants at the P < 0. 05 level. 3. 3. Antioxidant activity in linoleic acid system To evaluate the antioxidant potential of volatile oils and oleoresins of leaf and bark, their lipid inhibitory activities were compared with selected antioxidants and their major components by using ferric thiocyanate method of measuring the amounts of peroxides formed in emulsion during incubation. High absorbance is an indication of a high concentration of formed peroxides. The absorbance values of volatile oils and oleoresins of cinnamon along with synthetic antioxidants are shown in Fig. . The absorba nce Percentages are the mean of three runs and were obtained from electronic integration measurements using selective mass detector tr < 0. 01. Simultaneously with the measurements of peroxide value, the changes the secondary oxidation products such as malonaldehyde and 2-alkenals, which are measured by thiobarbituric (Fig. 2), p-anisidine (Fig. 3) and total carbonyl values (Fig. 4), were also determined after every 7 120 Control BHT C. L. Oil C. L. Oleoresin eugenol BHA PG C. B. Oil C. B. Oleoresin E-cinnamaldehyde 100 Peroxide value (meq/kg) 80 60 40 20 0 0 7 14 21 28Incubation time (days) Fig. 1. Inhibitory e? ect of volatile oil and oleoresin of cinnamon leaf and bark on the primary oxidation of mustard oil measured using peroxide value method. G. Singh et al. / Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2007) 1650–1661 1655 6 5 Control BHT Leaf oil Leaf oleoresin Eugenol BHA PG Bark oil Bark oleoresin E-cinnamaldehyde TBA value (meq/g) 4 3 2 1 0 0 7 14 21 28 Incubation time (days) Fig. 2. Inhibitory e? ect of volatile oil and oleoresin of cinnamon leaf and bark on the malonaldehyde formation in mustard oil measured using TBA value method. 7 6 Control BHT C. L. Oil C. L.Oleoresin eugenol BHA PG C. B. Oil C. B. Oleoresin E-cinnamaldehyde p-anisidine value 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 7 14 21 28 Incubation time (days) Fig. 3. Inhibitory e? ect of volatile oil and oleoresin of cinnamon leaf and bark on the formation of 2-alkenals in mustard oil measured using p-anisidine method. 16 14 Carbonyl value (mg) 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 7 Control BHT C. L. Oil C. L. Oleoresin Eugenol BHA PG C. B. Oil C. B. Oleoresin E-cinnamaldehyde 14 21 28 Incubation time (days) Fig. 4. Inhibitory e? ect volatile oil and oleoresin of cinnamon leaf and bark on the total carbonyls present in mustard oil. 1656 G. Singh et al. Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2007) 1650–1661 1. 9 1. 7 Absorbance at 500 nm 1. 5 1. 3 1. 1 0. 9 0. 7 0. 5 0 Control BHT Leaf oleoresin Bark oleoresin Cinnamaldehyde BHA Leaf oil bark oil eugenol 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 Incubation time (h) Fig. 5. Inhibitory e? ect of volatile oil and oleoresin of cinnamon leaf and bark on the primary oxidation of linoleic acid system measured using ferric thiocyanate method. of linoleic acid emulsion without additive increased rapidly, and there was a signi? cant di? erence between blank and antioxidants at the P < 0. 05 level. As can be seen in this ? , bark oleoresin was most e? ective among all the additives followed by leaf oleoresin. However, there are no signi? cant (p < 0. 05%) di? erences between antioxidative activities of oleoresins, oils, BHA, BHT and PG. 3. 4. DPPH and hydroxyl radical scavenging e? ects Table 6 shows the DPPH and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity of leaf and bark volatile oils and oleoresins with various concentrations. As positive control, BHA and BHT were also examined. Bark oleoresin showed the best result through all concentrations for DPPH assay. The volatile oils have shown almos t equal and moderate radical scavenging activity.At a concentration of 5 lL, signi? cant di? erences in DPPH scavenging activities was observed between BHA (78. 4%), BHT (81. 2%) and oleoresins of both leaf (51. 3%) and bark (75. 6%). However, as concentration increased, the di? erences in scavenging activities between BHA, BHT and oleoresins become less signi? cant. For hydroxyl radical scavenging test AOH radicals were generated by reaction of ferric-EDTA together with H2O2 and ascorbic acid to attack the substrate deoxyribose. The resulting products of the radical attack form a pink chromogen when heated with TBA in acid solution (Ohkawa et al. , 1979; Shimada et al. 1992). When the oils or oleoresins were incubated with this reaction mixture they were able to interfere with free radical reaction and could prevent damage to the sugar. The results are shown in Table 6. At 5 lL, scavenging e? ects on hydroxyl radicals were 31. 2%, 51. 2%, 43. 6% and 57. 6% for leaf and bark volatil e oils and oleoresin. However, at 25 lL BHA and BHT exhibited scavenging activities of 84. 9% and 83. 2%, respectively. There was a little change in the order of DPPH and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity of leaf oleoresin (86. 1%), bark volatile oil (79. 6%) and bark oleoresin (78. 6%).A close to linear correlation between radical scavenging activity and concentration of polyphenolic compounds in various vegetable and fruits have been reported (Pyo et al. , 2004; Robards et al. , 1999). These reports indicated that the radical scavenging activity of oleoresins might be mostly a? ected by position of the phenolic hydroxyl group which is present in eugenol. Yepez et al. (2001) used eugenol as standard which removed 95% of the initial DPPH free radical. 3. 5. Chelating e? ect and reducing power Chelating e? ects of the leaf and bark oleoresins on ferrous ions increased from 20. 5% at 5 lL to 24. % at 10 lL and maintained a plateau of 28. 2–35. 5% at 15– 25lL (Fig. 6). The bark oleoresin showed a better chelating e? ect than those leaf oleoresin and both volatile oils. In addition, chelating e? ects of oleoresins were relatively parallel and increased from 20. 5–23. 6% at 5 lL to 38. 5– 42% at 25 lL. However, at 5 lL, the chelating ability of EDTA was 90. 4%. Apparently, the cinnamon leaf and bark oleoresins could chelate ferrous ions but were not as e? ective chelators as EDTA. Reducing powers of leaf and bark oleoresins of cinnamon were excellent and were in the range 56. 0–58. 4, comparable with that of BHA (63. ) and BHT (65. 2) at 5 lL (Fig. 7). However, at 25 lL, the reducing power of the leaf and bark oleoresins, BHA and BHT were comparable (78. 5–87. 9). The reducing powers of the oleoresins might be due to the hydrogen donating abilities (Shimada et al. , 1992). 3. 6. Antimicrobial studies The results of volatile oils and oleoresins of cinnamon leaf and bark by inverted petriplate and poison food tech- G. Sing h et al. / Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2007) 1650–1661 1657 100 90 Chelating effect (%) 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 EDTA Leaf oleoresin Bark oleoresin E-Cinnamaldehyde Leaf oil Bark oil Eugenol 10 15 20 25 30 Concentration ( L) Fig. 6. Chelating e? ect of volatile oil and oleoresin of cinnamon leaf and bark along with synthetic antioxidants. 100 Reducing power (%) 80 BHA Leaf oil Bark oil Eugenol BHT Leaf oleoresin Bark oleoresin Cinnamaldehyde 60 40 20 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Concentration ( L) Fig. 7. Reducing power of volatile oil and oleoresin of cinnamon leaf and bark along with synthetic antioxidants. niques are reported in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. Using inverted petriplate method (Table 3), the leaf volatile oil was found to be 100% antifungal against all the tested fungi except A. chraceus and A. terreus at 6 lL. It was interesting to note that complete inhibition against A. ?avus was obtained only at 2 lL. However, leaf oleoresin has shown complete mycelial zone inhibition only for P. citrinum. More than 75% activity was obtained for P. veridicatum, F. moniliforme and A. ?avus. Bark volatile oil has shown complete inhibition against the fungi such as F. gramenearum, F. moniliforme, P. citrinum, P. viridicatum and A. terreus at 6 lL. Using poison food technique (Table 4), leaf volatile has caused complete inhibition against all the tested fungi except P. itrinum whereas oleoresin has caused complete inhibition only against P. citrinum. Bark volatile oil has shown complete inhibition against almost all the tested fungi except for A. ?avus, A. ochraceus whereas its oleoresin has caused complete inhibition for A. ?avus and A. ochraceus along with A. niger, A. terreus, P. citrinum and P. viridicatum at 6 lL. Using agar well di? usion method (Table 5), leaf volatile oil has shown better results in comparison with oleoresin and commercial bactericide, i. e. , ampicillin. Complete mycelial zone inhibition was obtained using leaf volatile oil again st P. eruginosa and B. cereus. However, it has moderate inhibitory e? ect on B. subtilis and S. aureus whereas its oleoresin has shown almost 100% activities against S. typhi and B. cereus. Bark volatile oil has been found to be better than bark oleoresin as it has caused more than 50% inhibition against all the tested fungi. There are several reports (Singh et al. , 1995; Hili et al. , 1997) stating that C. zeylanicum Blume exhibit antimicrobial activity. Their results demonstrate that the leaf oil completely inhibit the growth of E. coli, S. aureus and P. aeruginosa at the 1658 G. Singh et al. Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2007) 1650–1661 Table 3 Antifungal activity of volatile oils and oleoresins of cinnamon leaf and bark by inverted petriplate method Test Dose (lL) Percent mycelial inhibition zonea AN Leaf volatile oil 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 91. 5 100 100 25. 0 50. 0 58. 7 85. 3 93. 1 100 6. 3 38. 7 87. 2 62. 5 100 100 6. 3 35. 1 78. 3 AF 100 100 100 45. 6 76. 3 89. 3 100 100 100 6. 3 8. 8 13. 8 81. 2 100 100 65. 3 93. 2 100 AO 18. 7 56. 3 87. 5 46. 3 56. 3 68. 7 15. 6 52. 8 85. 3 12. 5 25. 0 37. 5 54. 3 78. 7 100 12. 5 25. 0 30. 8 FG 50. 0 52. 5 100 37. 5 50. 56. 3 36. 3 45. 8 95. 2 87. 5 87. 5 100 25. 0 50. 0 58. 7 75. 0 87. 5 100 FM 50. 0 52. 5 100 57. 5 80. 0 92. 5 31. 2 43. 2 83. 6 75. 0 87. 5 100 58. 6 79. 5 83. 3 58. 7 75. 3 83. 8 PC 37. 5 56. 3 100 67. 8 93. 3 100 25. 5 45. 8 86. 3 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 PV 37. 5 56. 3 100 38. 9 65. 5 87. 5 28. 5 47. 3 93. 7 100 100 100 76. 5 87. 5 100 85. 5 91. 5 100 AT 18. 7 36. 5 75. 0 46. 3 56. 3 68. 7 41. 3 53. 2 69. 1 37. 5 56. 3 100 87. 5 94. 1 100 56. 3 85. 6 100 Leaf oleoresin Eugenol Bark volatile oil Bark oleoresin E-cinnamaldehyde AN = Aspergillus niger; AF = Aspergillus ? vus; AO = Aspergillus ochraceus; FG = Fusarium graminearum; FM = Fusarium moniliforme; PC = Penicillium citrinum; PV = Penicillium viridicatum; AT = Aspergillus terreus. a Average of three replicate s. Table 4 Antifungal activity of volatile oils and oleoresins of cinnamon leaf and bark by food poisoned method Test Dose (ppm)a Percent mycelial inhibition zonea AN Leaf volatile oil 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 1000 2000 3000 100 100 100 62. 5 77. 5 87. 5 100 100 100 73. 5 100 100 48. 9 65. 3 83. 6 52. 3 68. 7 72. 3 78. 2 82. 2 96. 3 AF 31. 3 87. 5 100 18. 8 50. 0 100 15. 6 63. 2 95. 6 (–) 51. 3 87. 5 88. 7 91. 3 100 52. 87. 6 91. 2 85. 3 91. 2 96. 2 AO 50. 0 100 100 35. 0 82. 5 97. 5 45. 6 95. 6 100 75. 0 81. 2 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 84. 2 91. 2 98. 4 FG 75. 0 100 100 62. 5 77. 5 87. 5 63. 5 82. 1 93. 8 50. 0 75. 0 87. 5 65. 3 83. 2 100 47. 2 67. 8 85. 3 90. 2 96. 3 94. 5 FM 100 100 100 38. 7 46. 3 78. 7 45. 6 53. 6 78. 3 75. 0 83. 2 100 48. 7 56. 3 78. 7 63. 2 65. 8 87. 1 97. 2 100 100 PC 50. 0 75. 0 87. 5 35. 0 62. 5 97. 5 48. 6 73. 1 82. 6 43. 7 51. 3 65. 0 100 100 100 85. 2 89. 7 91. 2 100 100 100 PV 87. 5 100 100 50. 0 65. 5 70. 0 73. 2 85. 6 93. 6 50. 0 75. 0 87. 5 60. 0 85. 3 100 55. 3 63. 1 91. 2 100 100 100 AT 18. 7 50. 0 56. (–) 50. 0 100 15. 5 50. 0 75. 2 32. 5 45. 0 76. 3 35. 0 76. 2 83. 7 42. 3 45. 6 89. 3 98. 5 100 100 Leaf oleoresin Eugenol Bark volatile oil Bark oleoresin E-cinnamaldehyde Carbendazimb AN = Aspergillus niger; AF = Aspergillus ? avus; AO = Aspergillus ochraceus; FG = Fusarium graminearum; FM = Fusarium moniliforme; PC = Penicillium citrinum; PV = Penicillium viridicatum; AT = Aspergillus terreus. a Average of three replicates. b Aqueous solution was used. G. Singh et al. / Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2007) 1650–1661 Table 5 Antibacterial activity of volatile oils and oleoresins of cinnamon leaf and bark by agar well di? sion method Test Concentration (ppm) Inhibition zone (mm)a Gram (+) bacteria Bs Leaf volatile oil 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000 17. 1  ± 0. 4 20. 0  ± 0. 6 32. 6  ± 1. 2 14. 6  ± 1. 2 19. 0  ± 0. 2 25. 4  ± 0. 8 14. 3  ± 0. 6 17. 0  ± 0. 3 29. 6  ± 1. 2 14. 2  ± 0. 5 18. 3  ± 0. 3 26. 7  ± 0. 7 16. 2  ± 1. 3 20. 2  ± 1. 1 25. 3  ± 0. 3 12. 3  ± 0. 1 17. 3  ± 0. 5 23. 7  ± 0. 6 32. 5  ± 1. 2 34. 3  ± 0. 3 41. 2  ± 0. 2 Sa 26. 1  ± 1. 5 34. 9  ± 1. 3 48. 7  ± 0. 5 27. 1  ± 0. 1 38. 9  ± 0. 2 49. 3  ± 2. 2 23. 1  ± 1. 1 26. 9  ± 1. 3 38. 7  ± 0. 3 27. 0  ± 0. 9 44. 6  ± 0. 56. 7  ± 0. 1 23. 1  ± 0. 4 28. 7  ± 0. 2 33. 6  ± 0. 3 23. 0  ± 0. 7 41. 6  ± 0. 8 53. 7  ± 0. 1 29. 5  ± 0. 6 32. 6  ± 1. 6 37. 5  ± 0. 2 Bc 43. 3  ± 1. 7 58. 0  ± 0. 6 + 64. 5  ± 0. 6 80. 4  ± 1. 1 + 33. 3  ± 1. 5 56. 0  ± 0. 8 72. 3  ± 0. 2 41. 3  ± 1. 7 52. 6  ± 1. 2 56. 3  ± 0. 5 38. 6  ± 0. 2 41. 3  ± 0. 4 45. 6  ± 0. 7 31. 3  ± 1. 2 48. 6  ± 0. 2 52. 3  ± 0. 3 31. 4  ± 0. 2 34. 6  ± 0. 1 38. 2  ± 0. 3 Gram (A) bacteria Ec 13. 0  ± 0. 2 18. 2  ± 1. 1 25. 8  ± 0. 5 11. 4  ± 0. 6 13. 1  ± 0. 7 18. 5  ± 1. 1 11. 3  ± 0. 1 17. 2  ± 1. 6 21. 8  ± 0. 3 28. 1  ± 0. 2 33. 2  ± 1. 3 35. 1  ± 0. 3 33. 4  ± 0. 5 35. 4  ± 0. 3 37. 1  ± 0. 3 26. 1  ± 0. 5 33.  ± 1. 8 34. 1  ± 0. 2 33. 6  ± 0. 8 37. 8  ± 1. 4 39. 5  ± 0. 6 St 12. 5  ± 0. 8 14. 6  ± 1. 1 17. 9  ± 0. 2 53. 6  ± 1. 3 73. 8  ± 0. 5 78. 1  ± 0. 8 12. 5  ± 0. 8 14. 6  ± 1. 1 17. 9  ± 0. 2 20. 6  ± 1. 8 32. 7  ± 2. 0 41. 3  ± 0. 3 17. 2  ± 0. 1 18. 6  ± 0. 7 19. 3  ± 0. 5 18. 6  ± 1. 4 31. 7  ± 1. 0 40. 3  ± 0. 3 21. 9  ± 0. 5 25. 6  ± 0. 7 28. 9  ± 1. 3 Pa 1659 25. 7  ± 0. 6 + + 20. 5  ± 0. 1 21. 4  ± 0. 8 25. 8  ± 0. 1 26. 7  ± 0. 5 + + 50. 2  ± 1. 2 56. 5  ± 0. 8 60. 2  ± 0. 3 40. 6  ± 0. 4 45. 3  ± 0. 8 56. 2  ± 0. 7 30. 2  ± 1. 1 48. 5  ± 0. 6 59. 2  ± 0. 1 24. 3  ± 0. 4 26. 3  ± 1. 5 27. 3  ± 1. 1 Leaf oleoresin Eugenol Bark volatile oilBark oleoresin E-cinnamaldehyde Ampicillin Bs = Bacillus s ubtilis; Sa = Staphylococcus aureus; Bc = Bacillus cereus ; Ec = Escherichia coli ; St = Salmonella typhi; Pa = Pseudomonas aeruginosa. (+) indicates complete inhibition. a Average of three replicates. level of 500 lg mLA1. Another report (Smith-Palmer et al. , 1998) found the MICs of C. zeylanicum against E. coli and S. aureus were 0. 05% and 0. 04%, respectively. To con? rm the relationship of the constituents in cinnamon leaf and bark and antimicrobial activity, the major components were tested for antimicrobial activity. The results are shown in Tables 3–5.Among both constituents, E-cinnamaldehyde possessed better activity and these ? ndings are quite similar with the results of Chang et al. (2001). However, eugenol, in spite of being phenolic compound, failed to inhibit the fungal growth by inverted petriplate method but when it was added directly to the growth media in higher concentrations, it appeared to inhibit completely the microbial growth. Nevertheless, it is wor th noting that essential oils and oleoresins are very heterogeneous mixtures of a single substances, biological actions are primarily due to these components in a very complicated concert of synergistic or antagonistic e? cts. Table 6 Comparison of scavenging e? ects of cinnamon leaf and bark volatile oils and oleoresins against DPPH and hydroxyl radicals Sample Radical scavenging activitya (%) DPPH radical 5 lL Leaf oil Leaf oleoresin Eugenol Bark oil Bark oleoresin E-cinnamaldehyde BHA BHT a Hydroxyl radical 15 lL 69. 9 74. 1 65. 2 76. 2 89. 3 72. 3 92. 1 89. 2 20 lL 72. 1 76. 7 71. 3 82. 1 91. 2 75. 1 94. 7 91. 7 25 lL 73. 9 91. 2 92. 9 83. 6 95. 3 78. 3 96. 4 94. 9 5 lL 31. 2 43. 6 39. 4 51. 2 57. 6 49. 8 71. 3 66. 2 10 lL 55. 7 57. 1 45. 1 57. 6 62. 3 53. 6 75. 1 72. 1 15 lL 63. 5 70. 4 54. 3 73. 1 68. 9 57. 1 78. 75. 3 20 lL 68. 1 73. 6 61. 5 76. 9 71. 2 65. 2 81. 7 77. 5 25 lL 72. 2 86. 1 68. 2 79. 6 78. 6 68. 3 84. 9 83. 2 10 lL 58. 7 58. 9 56. 8 73. 5 87. 5 68. 1 89. 3 85. 1 45. 2 51. 3 41. 3 71. 1 75. 6 65. 3 78. 4 81. 2 Average of three replicates. 1660 G. Singh et al. / Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2007) 1650–1661 Chang, S. T. , Chen, P. F. , Chang, S. C. , 2001. Antibacterial activity of leaf essential oils and their constituents from Cinnamon osmophloeum. Journal of Ethanopharmacology 77, 123–127. Cuvelier, M. E. , Berset, H. , Richard, H. , 1994. Antioxidant constituents in sage (Salvia o? cinalis).Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 42, 665–669. Davidson, P. M. , Parish, M. E. , 1989. Methods for testing the e? cacy of food antimicrobials. Food Technology 43, 148–155. Djarmati, Z. , Jankov, R. M. , Schwirtlich, E. , Djulinac, B. , Djoedjevic, A. , 1991. High antioxidant activity of oleoresins obtained from sage by supercritical CO2 extraction. Journal of American Oil Chemical Society 68, 731–734. Economou, K. D. , Oreopoulou, V. , Thomopoulos, 1991. Antioxidant activity of some plant oleoresins of th e family Labiatae. Journal of American Oil Chemical Society 68, 109–115. Frankel, E. N. 1998. Lipid Oxidation. The Oily Press, Dundee, UK, 301 pp. Gordon, M. H. , Weng, C. X. , 1992. 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K. , Rao, L. J. , Sakariah, K. K. , 1997. Chemical composition of the volatiles from oil from the fruits of Cinnamon zeylinicum Blume.Flavour Fragrance Journal 12, 331. Kahl, R. , Kappus, H. , 1993. Toxicity of synthetic antioxidants BHA and BHT in comparison with natural antioxidants vitamin E. Zeitschrift fur Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und –Forschung 196, 329–338. Kikuzaki, H. , Nakatani, N. , 1993. Antioxidant e? ect of some ginger constituents. Journal of Food Science 58, 1407–1410. Madsen, H. L. , Andersen, L. , Christiansen, L. , Brockho? , P. , Bertelsen, G. , 1996. Antioxidative activity of summer savory (Satureja hortensis L. ) and rosemary (Rosmarinus o? cinalis L. ) in minced cooked pork meat. Z. Lebensm.Unters Forsch. 203, 333–338 . Massda, Y. , 1976. Analysis of essential oils by Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry. Halsted/Wiley, New York. Ohkawa, H. , Ohishi, N. , Yagi, K. , 1979. Assay for lipid peroxides in animal tissues by thiobarbituric acid reaction. 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(Eds. ), Phenolic Compounds in Food and Their E? ects on Health.American Chemical Society, New York, pp. 54–72. 4. Conclusion The present study provided the potential antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of the volatile oils and oleoresins of cinnamon leaf and bark. The oleoresins have shown better e? ect on primary and secondary oxidation products in mustard oil. The radical scavenging activity and other complementary assays are also in good correlation. Moreover, the potency of the constituents such as eugenol and cinnamaldehyde could provide a chemical basis for some of the health bene? ts claimed for cinnamon and warrant further studies to assess their potential as e? ctive natural remedies. Acknowledgements We are thankful to Head, Chemistry Department, DDU Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur for provi ding laboratory facilities. Prof. K. D. S. Yadav of our department is also thanked for providing spectral facility. Life Sciences Research Board, DRDO, New Delhi and CONICET and Consejo de Investigaciones de la Universidad Nacional de Tucuman (CIUNT) Argentina are also thanked for ? nancial assistance. References Adams, R. P. , 2001. Identi? cation of Essential Oils Compounds by Gas Chromatography/Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry. Allured Publishing Corporation, Carol Stream, IL, USA.Amvam Zolla, P. H. , Biyiti, L. , Tchoumbougnang, F. , Menut, C. , Lamaty, G. , Bouchet, P. , 1998. Aromatic plant of tropical Central Africa. Part XXXIII, Chemical composition and antifungal activity of thirteen essential oils from aromatic plants of Cameroon. Flavour and Fragrance Journal 13, 107–114. AOCS. 1990. O? cial methods and recommended practices of the American Oil Chemists Society Method cd-83 and method cd-1890, fourth ed. , American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign. AOCS. 1998. O? cial m ethods: peroxide value. In: O? cial Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemist’s Society, ? fth ed. 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Free Essays on Machiavellian Politics In The Prince

The Prince, written by Niccolo Machiavelli, is one of the first examinations of politics and science from a purely scientific and rational perspective. Machiavelli theorizes that the state is only created if the people cooperate and work to maintain it. The state is also one of man’s greatest endeavors, and the state takes precedence over everything else. The state should be one’s primary focus, and maintaining the sovereignty of the state one’s most vital concern. The state is founded on the power of its military. Therefore, a strong military is vital to maintaining the state. Machiavelli believes that men respect power, but they will take advantage of kindness. He believes that when given the opportunity one must destroy completely, because if one does not he will certainly be destroyed. The prince should lead the military, and he has to be intelligent. An effective politician can make quick and intelligent choices about the problems that coneztly arise before him. He must also have virtue, which means he is strong, confident, talented, as well as smart. A prince cannot be uncertain, because uncertainty is a sign of weakness. Fortune controls half of human’s actions, and man’s will control the other half. Virtue is the best defense for fortune, and virtue must be used in order to keep fortune in check. The prince must take advantage of situations based solely on if it is best for the state. He should choose his decisions based on contemporary and historical examples. A prince cannot consider whether his acts are moral or immoral, and he instead must act in an unbiased manner for the state. Also, it does not matter how the state achieves its goals, as long as these goals are achieved. Finally, regardless of the personal morality involved, the prince should be praised if he does good for the state and berated if he hurts the state. Machiavelli’s principles have widespread influenc... Free Essays on Machiavellian Politics In The Prince Free Essays on Machiavellian Politics In The Prince The Prince, written by Niccolo Machiavelli, is one of the first examinations of politics and science from a purely scientific and rational perspective. Machiavelli theorizes that the state is only created if the people cooperate and work to maintain it. The state is also one of man’s greatest endeavors, and the state takes precedence over everything else. The state should be one’s primary focus, and maintaining the sovereignty of the state one’s most vital concern. The state is founded on the power of its military. Therefore, a strong military is vital to maintaining the state. Machiavelli believes that men respect power, but they will take advantage of kindness. He believes that when given the opportunity one must destroy completely, because if one does not he will certainly be destroyed. The prince should lead the military, and he has to be intelligent. An effective politician can make quick and intelligent choices about the problems that coneztly arise before him. He must also have virtue, which means he is strong, confident, talented, as well as smart. A prince cannot be uncertain, because uncertainty is a sign of weakness. Fortune controls half of human’s actions, and man’s will control the other half. Virtue is the best defense for fortune, and virtue must be used in order to keep fortune in check. The prince must take advantage of situations based solely on if it is best for the state. He should choose his decisions based on contemporary and historical examples. A prince cannot consider whether his acts are moral or immoral, and he instead must act in an unbiased manner for the state. Also, it does not matter how the state achieves its goals, as long as these goals are achieved. Finally, regardless of the personal morality involved, the prince should be praised if he does good for the state and berated if he hurts the state. Machiavelli’s principles have widespread influenc...

Sectionalism in American History

Sectionalism in American History Free Online Research Papers Sectionalism in the United States has been an inevitable reality that we have dealt with since the start of the nation. Sectionalism is defined as an excessive concern for the interests of one group or area to the detriment of the whole. There are countless issues that have divided the country and cause unrest between the citizens of the United States. The three that I have chosen to explain are The Dred Scott v. Sandford Case, The Nullification Crisis and The Second Bank of America. Dred Scott was an African slave who lived in states and territories where slavery was illegal, including Illinois and Wisconsin. Those two states were part of the Illinois Territory. Not only was Dred Scott a slave but his wife Harriet was as well. They were both owned by Dr. John Emerson who was in the United States Army. This caused them to be transferred between Illinois and Wisconsin quite often. Legally, in Illinois, Dred was free to claim his freedom. In October of 1837, Dr. John Emerson had been transferred to St. Louis, Missouri where he had left Dred and his wife Harriet behind to be hired by another master. This was Illegal under the Missouri Compromise. The Missouri Compromise stated that Missouri was allowed to enter the Union as a slave state and Maine was to enter the Union as a free state. The Compromise also drew an imaginary line at 36 degrees parallel. This divided the new Louisiana Territory into two areas, one north and one south. All of the Louisiana Territory north of this line was free territory. The following month, Emerson was transferred to Fort Jessup, Louisiana and then the following February, he married Irene Marie Sanford and sent for Scott and his wife from Minnesota, where they had been staying. Dred and his wife followed Emerson and his family, first to St. Louis and then to Fort Snelling They stayed in Fort Snelling until May of 1840. On their trip to Fort Snelling, their first child was born named Eliza Scott. After Emerson died unexpectedly in December of 1843 Scott tried to purchase his freedom from Irene Emerson in February of 1846, but she refused. In April of that same year, Dred sued for his freedom. He argued that since he had been living in both a free state and a free territory he was legally free. In his first case, he lost because he was unable to prove to the court that he was a slave. The judge ordered a second trial in December, 1847 which Irene Emerson appealed to the Supreme Court of Missouri. The court ruled against her in June of 1848. A new trial didn’t start until January of 1850. The jury ruled that Scott and his family were legally free. It was then that Irene Emerson appealed a second time to the Supreme Court of Missouri. After losing case after case, Irene Emerson decided to turn the case over to her brother, John F. A. Sanford. The Missouri Supreme Court then reversed the previous case’s decision and decided that Dred Scott was still a slave, which did not agree with the laws of Missouri which stated that â€Å"slaves taken into Free states were automatically free† (Henretta et al 1993: pg.232). That decision was then discussed at the St. Louis State and Federal Courthouse and on March 6, 1857 seven out of nine Justices on the Supreme Court declared no slave or descendant of a slave could be a U.S. citizen. It was also stated by the court that Scott had no rights and could not sue in a Federal Court and must remain a slave. A second instance of sectionalism and its effect on the nation was the Second Bank of the United States. Five years after the failure of the First Bank of The United States, the Second Bank of the United States was created in 1816. Its goal was to help alleviate the currency problems that arose during the presidency of James Madison. Located in Philadelphia, The Second Bank of The United States began when James Madison and Albert Gallatin realized that the government could not keep up with the finances of the country after the significant damage the War of 1812 had done financially to the country. There was a large increase in banknotes among the new private banks and a result of this was the great increase in inflation. Despite the debt caused by The War of 1812, there was also a huge economic explosion because of the damage from the Napoleonic Wars and due to the damage that had done to Europe’s agricultural area; America had a huge agricultural expansion. This then led to the bank increasing in its loans so that just about anybody could borrow money. People began to buy lots of land which doubled and maybe tripled the prices of land. The citizens of the United States were so caught up in the economic boom that was happening that they didn’t even notice all the fraud the bank was causing. In 1818, the bank finally realized what was happening to the country due to the banks excessive lending so they put in a policy to rescind some of the loans that were given out. This slowed down the economy tremendously and ultimately led to The Panic of 1819 which was the very first financial crisis to ever happen to the United States. By 1830 Andrew Jackson was so fed up with the outcome of this bank he had a thorough investigation done and said that this bank established â€Å"beyond question that this great and powerful institution had been actively engaged in attempting to influence the elections of the public officers by means of its money.† Even though it was said that the bank’s charter would run out by 1836, Andrew Jackson wanted to put an end to it prematurely and put an end to all the corruption it had brought to the economy of the United States. The head of the Second Bank wanted to have a 4 year extension but when given the bill, Jackson quickly vetoed it. The Second bank worked solely off the tax revenue that the federal government deposited regularly. In 1833, Andrew Jackson had the Secretary of Treasury to only deposit the tax revenues into the state banks. By this time, the Second Bank began to lose money. And in 1836, the bank’s charter expired and it turned into a regular bank in Philadelphia. Five years after that, the former Second Bank of America, went bankrupt altogether. Another sectional issue that effected American history was the Nullification Crisis of 1832. Nullification is an act by which a state will nullify or invalidate a federal law within its borders that it deems unconstitutional. Nearing the end of his first term in office, President Andrew Jackson was forced to somehow deal with the state of South Carolina on the issue of the protective tariff. The businessmen and farmers of the state of South Carolina were hoping that Andrew Jackson would use all his presidential power to help modify tariff laws that had been opposed by the citizens for a long time. Many of the people of South Carolina felt that all the benefits of protection tariff were going to Northern manufacturers. While northern states grew richer, South Carolina grew poorer, hurting many of the small businessmen and farmers in the process. John C. Calhoun responded to this by presenting nullification in the South Carolina Exposition and Protest. They tariff was then rendered nul l and void by the state of South Carolina. The legislative branch then passed a law that would enforce the ordinance which included â€Å"authorization for raising a military force and the appropriation of arms.† In response to that, in November of 1832, President Jackson had seven vessels and a man-of-war over to Charleston, South Carolina. Soon after, on December 10th of that same year, he ordered a proclamation to undo the nullification. President Jackson then stated that the state of South Carolina had â€Å"stood on the brink of insurrection and treason. He pleaded to the state of South Carolina as a whole to stress their allegiance to that Union which their ancestors had fought for. When the question of tariffs came up again in Congress, Senator Henry Clay was the sole advocate for the protection tariff and proposed a compromise to Congress which passed soon after its proposal in 1833. It stated that all duties more than 20 percent of the value of the goods imported were to be reduced gradually, so that by 1842, the duties on all articles would reach the point of the Fair Tariff of 1816. Leaders of the nullification in South Carolina thought that they would have the support of the other southern states, but instead the southern states felt that South Carolina’s course of action was unconstitutional. This then led South Carolina to withdraw of all of their actions. Overall, America as a whole will never completely agree on any one issue. Ultimately, it is instances such as these that make American history, history. Research Papers on Sectionalism in American HistoryThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This Nice19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraPETSTEL analysis of IndiaBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoCapital PunishmentThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseQuebec and CanadaAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2

This an assignment regarding a retirement community in arizona named Essay

This an assignment regarding a retirement community in arizona named sun lake. It is a group projject below is my part - Essay Example This theory helps us understand the nature of targeted health behavior (Schmid 69). They will help understand the dynamic of the behavior and the effects of external influences. The following theories are helpful in health promotion. The main goals of health promotion are to reduce health risk and optimize health and productivity while lowering the health related costs. The work site health promotion creates to a culture that will foster motivation and overall health of individuals. Creativity plays an important role in health and well being. Creativity derives from the biological changes of human evolution that is needed for survival. The therapeutic benefits of creativity perform and active search that will deal with the occupational health promotion (White 37). This will lead to the development new models such as a contemporary health model that will help in improving health